Structure
and Written Expression is usually placed in the second session in toefl test.
This section contains forty questions (though some tests may be longer). You
have twenty-five minutes to accomplish the forty questions in this section. There
are two types of questions in the Structure and Written Expression section of
the paper TOEFL test:
- Structure (questions 1-15) consists of fifteen sentences in which part of each sentence has been replaced with a blank. Each sentence is followed by four answer choices. You must choose the answer that completes the sentence in a grammatically correct way.
- Written Expression (questions 16-40) consists of twenty-five sentences in which four words or groups of words have been underlined. You must choose the underlined word or group of words that is not correct
GENERAL
STRATEGIES IN STRUCTURE AND WRITTEN EXPRESSION
- Be familiar with the directions. The directions on every paper TOEFL test are the same, so it is not necessary to spend time reading the directions carefully when you take the test You should be completely familiar with the directions before the day of the test.
- Begin with questions 1 through 15. Anticipate that questions I through 5 will be the easiest. Anticipate that questions 11 through 15 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too There will be easier questions that come later.
- Continue with questions 16 through 40. Anticipate that questions 16 through 20 will be the easiest. Anticipate that questions 36 through 40 will be the most difficult. Do not spend too much time on questions 36 through 40.
- If you have time, return to questions 11 through 15. You should spend extra time on questions 11 through 15 only after you spend all the time that you want on the easier questions that follow.
- Guess to complete the section before time is up. There is no penalty for guessing, so it can only increase your score to guess the answers to questions that you do not have time to complete.
PROCEDURES
FORTHE STRUCTURE QUESTIONS
- First, study the sentence. Your purpose is to determine what is needed to complete the sentence correctly.
- Then study each answer based on how well it completes the sentence. Eliminate answers that do not complete the sentence correctly.
- Do not try to eliminate incorrect answers by looking only at the answers. The incorrect answers are generally correct by themselves. The incorrect answers are generally incorrect only when used
Skill 1: BE SURE THE SENTENCE HAS A SUBJECT AND A VERB
You know that a sentence in English should have a subject and a verb.
The most common types of problems that you will encounter in structure questions
on the TOEFL test have to do with subjects and verbs: perhaps the sentence is
missing either the subject or the verb or both, or perhaps the sentence has an
extra subject or verb.
_____was backed up for miles on the freeway.
(A) Yesterday
(B) In the morning
(C) Traffic
(D) Cars
Skill 2: BE CAREFUL OF OBJECTS OF PREPOSITIONS
An
object of a preposition is a noun, pronoun, gerund or noun clause that comes
after a preposition, such as in, at, of, to, by, behind, on, and so on, to form
a prepositional phrase.
(After his exams) Tom will take a trip (by boat) .
This sentence contains two objects of prepositions. Exams is the object of the preposition after, and boat is the object of the preposition by
SKILL
3: BE CAREFUL OF APPOSITIVES
Appositives
can cause confusion in structure questions on the TOEFL test because an
appositive can be mistaken for the subject of a sentence. An appositive is a
noun that comes before or after another noun and has the same meaning
Sally,
the best student in the class, got an A on the exam.
In this example Sally is the subject of the sentence and the best student in the class can easily be recognized as an appositive phrase because of the noun student and because of the commas. The sentence says that Sally and the best student in the class are the same person. Note that if you leave out the appositive phrase, the sentence still makes sense (Sally got an A on the exam)
.
Skill 4: BE CAREFUL OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES
Skill 6: USE COORDINATE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect the two clauses correctly. One way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so, or yet between the clauses.
A present participle is the -ing form of the verb (talking, playing).
In structure questions on the TOEFL test, a present participle can cause
confusion because it can be either a part of the verb or an adjective. It is
part of the verb when it is preceded by some form of the verb be (The man is
talking to his friend). A present participle is an adjective when it is not
accompanied by some form of the verb be (The man talking to his friend has a
beard)
Skill 5: BE CAREFUL OF PAST PARTICIPLES
Past participles can cause confusion in structure questions on the TOEFL test because a past participle can be either an adjective or a part of a verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be. It often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participles in English. The family has purchased a television (purchased=verb). The television purchased yesterday was expensive (purchased=adjective).
Past participles can cause confusion in structure questions on the TOEFL test because a past participle can be either an adjective or a part of a verb. The past participle is the form of the verb that appears with have or be. It often ends in -ed, but there are also many irregular past participles in English. The family has purchased a television (purchased=verb). The television purchased yesterday was expensive (purchased=adjective).
Skill 6: USE COORDINATE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
When you have two clauses in an English sentence, you must connect the two clauses correctly. One way to connect two clauses is to use and, but, or, so, or yet between the clauses.
Skill 7: USE ADVERB TIME AND CAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
Sentences with
adverb clauses have two basic patterns in English. Study the clauses and ‘
connectors in the following sentences:
I will
sign the check before you leave.
Before you leave, I will sign the check.
In each of these examples, there are two
clauses: you leave and I will sign the check, and the clause you
leave is an adverb time clause because it is introduced with the connector before.
In the first example the connector before comes in the middle of the
sentence, and no comma (,) is used. In the second example the connector before
comes at the beginning of the sentence. In this pattern, when the connector
comes at the beginning of the sentence, a comma (,) is required in the middle
of the sentence
Skill 8: USE OTHER ADVERB CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
Adverb clauses can express the ideas of time and cause, as you saw in
Skill 7; adverb clauses can also express a number of other ideas, such as
contrast, condition, manner, and place. Because these clauses are adverb
clauses, they have the same structure as the time and cause clauses in Skill 7. Study the following examples:
I will leave at 7:00 if I am ready.
Although I was late, I managed to catch the train.
In each of these examples, there are two clauses that are correctly joined with adverb connectors. In the first sentence, the adverb condition connector if comes in the middle of the sentence. In the second sentence, the adverb contrast connector although comes at the beginning of the sentence, and a comma (,) is used in the middle of the sentence.
Skill
9: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
A
noun clause is a clause that functions as a noun; because the noun clause is a
noun, it is used in a sentence as either an object of a verb, an object of a
preposition, or the subject of the sentence.
I know when he will arrive
I am concerned about when he will arrive
In the first example there are two clauses, I know and he will arrive. These two clauses are joined with the connector when. When changes the clause he will arrive into a noun clause that functions as the object of the verb know. In the second example the two clauses I am concerned and he will arrive are also joined by the connector when. When changes the clause he will arrive into a noun clause that functions as the object of the preposition about.
Skill 10: USE NOUN CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In this Skill , we will see that in some cases a noun clause connector
is not just a connector; a noun clause connector can also be the subject of the
clause at the same time.
I do not know what is in the box.
We are concerned about who will do the work
In the first example there are two clauses: I do not know and what is in the box. These two clauses are joined by the connector what. It is important to understand that in this sentence the word what serves two functions. It is both the subject of the verb is and the connector that joins the two clauses. In the second example there are two clauses. In the first clause we is the subject of are. In the second clause who is the subject of will do. Who also serves as the connector that joins the two clauses. The noun clause who will do the work functions as the object of the preposition about.
Skill 11: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTORS CORRECTLY
An adjective clause is a clause that describes a noun. Because the
clause is an adjective, it is positioned directly after the noun that it
describes.
In the first example there are two clauses: woman is the subject of the verb is filling, and she is the subject of the verb put. That is the adjective clause connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that she put on the table describes the noun glass. In the second example there are also two clauses: glass is the subject of the verb contains, and she is the subject of the verb put. In this sentence also, that is the adjective clause connector that joins these two clauses, and the adjective clause that she put on the table describes the noun glass.
Skill 12: USE ADJECTIVE CLAUSE CONNECTOR/SUBJECTS CORRECTLY
In Skill 11 we saw that adjective clause connectors were used to introduce clauses that describe nouns. In Skill 12 we will see that in some cases an adjective clause connector is not just a connector; an adjective clause connector can also be the subject of the clause at the same time.
In the first example there are two clauses: woman is the subject of the verb is filling, and that is the subject of the verb is. These two clauses are joined with the connector that. Notice that in this example the word that serves two functions at the same time: it is the subject of the verb is, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses. The adjective clause that is on the table describes the noun glass. In the second example, there are also two clauses: glass is the subject of the verb contains, and that is the subject of the verb is. In this example that also serves two functions: it is the subject of the verb is, and it is the connector that joins the two clauses. Because that is on the table is an adjective clause describing the noun glass, it directly follows glass.
Skill 13: USE REDUCED ADJECTIVE CLAUSES CORRECTLY
The woman waving to us is the tour guide.
The pitcher on the table is full of iced tea
Skill 14: USE REDUCED ADVERB CLAUSES CORRECTLY
Adverb clauses can also appear in a reduced form. In the reduced form,
the adverb connector remains, but the subject and fo-verb are omitted.
Although rather unwell, the speaker will take part in the seminar.
When ready, you can begin your speech.
Skill 15: INVERTTHE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH QUESTION WORDS
There is some confusion about when to invert the subject and verb after
question words such as what, when, where, why, and how. These
words can have two very different functions in a sentence. First, they can
introduce a question, and in this case the subject and verb that follow are
inverted.
What is the homework?
When can I leave?
Where are you going?
Also, these words can join together two clauses, and in this case the subject and verb that follow are not inverted.
I do not know what the homework is.
When I can leave, I will take the first train.
Do you know where you are going?
Skill
16: INVERTTHE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH PLACE EXPRESSIONS
After ideas
expressing place, the subject and the verb sometimes invert in English. This
can happen with single words expressing place, such as here, there, or nowhere.
Here is the book that you lent me.
There are the keys that I thought I lost.
Nowhere have I seen such beautiful weather
Skill 17: INVERTTHE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH NEGATIVES
The subject and verb can also be inverted after certain negatives and
related expressions. When negative expressions, such as no, not, or never,
come at the beginning of a sentence, the subject and verb are inverted.
Not once did I miss a question.
Never has Mr. Jones taken a vacation.
At no time can the woman talk on the telephone.
Skill 18: INVERTTHE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH CONDITIONALS
In
certain conditional structures, the subject and verb may also be inverted. This
can occur when the helping verb in the conditional clause is had, should,
or were, and the conditional connector if is omitted.
If he had taken more time, the results would have been better.
Had he taken more time, the results would have been better.
Skill
19: INVERTTHE SUBJECT AND VERB WITH COMPARISONS
An inverted subject and verb may also occur after a comparison. The
inversion of a subject and verb after a comparison is optional, rather than
required, and it is a rather formal structure. There have been a number of
inverted comparisons on recent TOEFL tests, so you should be familiar with this
structure.
My sister spends more hours in the office than John.
My sister spends more hours in the office than]o\m does.
My sister spends more hours in the office than does John
Skill 20: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES
Sometimes prepositional phrases can come between the subject and the
verb. If the object of the preposition is singular and the subject is plural,
or if the object of the preposition is plural and the subject is singular,
there can be confusion in making the subject and verb agree.
Skill
21: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER EXPRESSIONS OF QUANTITY
A particular
agreement problem occurs when the subject is an expression of quantity, such as
all, most, or some, followed by the preposition of.
In this situation, the subject (all, most, or some) can be
singular or plural, depending on what follows the preposition of.
Skill 22: MAKE INVERTED VERBS AGREE
Skill
23: MAKE VERBS AGREE AFTER CERTAIN WORDS
Certain words in English are always grammatically singular, even though
they might have plural meanings. Everybody. the word such as anybody, everybody, nobody, somebody, each
(+ noun), anyone, everyone no one someone, every (+ noun), anything,
everything, nothing, something everybody are singular and requires a
singular verb.
Skill 24: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS
The job of the coordinate conjunctions (and, but, or) is to join
together equal expressions. In other words, what is on one side of these words
must be parallel to what is on the other side. These conjunctions can join
nouns, or verbs, or adjectives, or phrases, or subordinate clauses, or main
clauses; they just must join together two of the same thing.
Skill 25: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH PAIRED CONJUNCTIONS
The paired
conjunctions both... and, either... or, neither... nor, and not
only... but also require parallel structures.
Skill 26: USE PARALLEL STRUCTURE WITH COMPARISONS
When you make a comparison, you point out the similarities or
differences between two things, and those similarities or differences must be
in parallel form. You can recognize a comparison showing how two things are
different from the -er... than or the more... than.
Skill
27: FORM COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY
The problem
with some of the comparative and superlative sentences on the TOEFL test is
that the comparative or superlative is formed incorrectly. You should therefore
understand how to form the comparative and superlative to answer such questions
correctly.
Skill 28: USE COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES CORRECTLY.
Another problem with the comparative and superlative on the TOEFL test is that they can be used incorrectly. The comparative and superlative have different uses, and you should understand these different uses to answer such questions correctly. The comparative is used to compare two equal things.
Another problem with the comparative and superlative on the TOEFL test is that they can be used incorrectly. The comparative and superlative have different uses, and you should understand these different uses to answer such questions correctly. The comparative is used to compare two equal things.
Skill 29: USE THE IRREGULAR -ER, -ER STRUCTURE CORRECTLY
An irregular comparative structure that has been appearing frequently on the TOEFL test consists of two parallel comparatives introduced by the.
Skill
30: AFTER HAVE, USE THE PAST PARTICIPLE
Whenever you see the helping verb have in any of its forms {have, has, having, had), be sure that the verb that follows it is in the past participle form.
Whenever you see the helping verb have in any of its forms {have, has, having, had), be sure that the verb that follows it is in the past participle form.
Skill
31: AFTER BE, USE THE PRESENT PARTICIPLE ORTHE PAST PARTICIPLE
The
verb be in any of its forms (am, is, are, was, were, be, been, being)
can be followed by another verb. This verb should be in the present participle
or the past participle form.
Whenever
you see a modal, such as will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might,
or must, you should be sure that the verb that follows it is in its base
form.
One
verb tense problem that is common both in student writing and on the TOEFL test
is the switch from the past tense to the present tense for no particular
reason. Often when a sentence has both a past tense and a present tense, the
sentence is incorrect
Two
tenses that are often confused are the present perfect (have+ past
participle) and the past perfect (had + past participle). These two
tenses have completely different uses, and you should understand how to
differentiate them.
Often
in written expression questions on the TOEFL test there is a time expression
that clearly indicates what verb tense is needed in the sentence.
Certain
combinations of verbs are very common in English. One is the combination of the
simple present and will.
I know that
they will arrive soon.
It is
certain that he will graduate.
One
way that the passive can be tested on the TOEFL test is simply with an
incorrect form of the passive. The following are examples of passive errors
that might appear on the TOEFL test:
The portrait was
painting* by a famous artist.
The project will
finished* by Tim.
Skill 38: RECOGNIZE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE MEANINGS
When
there is no object (with or without by) after a verb, you must look at
the meaning of the sentence to determine if the verb should be active or
passive. Sentences with an incorrect passive verb and no by + object
to tell you that the verb should be passive are the most difficult passive
errors to recognize on the TOEFL test. Study the examples:
We mailed the
package at the post office.
The letter was
mailed by us today before noon.
The letter was
mailed today before noon.
A
problem that is common in written expression questions on the TOEFL test is a
singular noun used where a plural noun is needed, or a plural noun used where a
singular noun is needed.
On the table there
were many dish*.
The lab assistant finished every tests?\
Skill 40: DISTINGUISH COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
In
English, nouns are classified as countable or uncountable. For certain
questions on the TOEFL test, it is necessary to distinguish countable and
uncountable nouns in order to use the correct modifiers with them. As the name implies, countable nouns are nouns that can be counted. Countable nouns can come in quantities of one, or two, or a hundred, etc. The noun book is countable because you can have one book or several books. Uncountable nouns, on the other hand, are nouns that cannot be counted because they come in some indeterminate quantity or mass. A noun such as milk or happiness cannot be counted; you cannot have one milk or two milks, and you cannot find one happiness or two happinesses. Uncountable nouns are often liquid items, such as water, oil, or shampoo. Uncountable nouns can also refer to abstract ideas, such as security, excitement, or hope.
Many
nouns in English have irregular plurals, and these irregular forms can cause
confusion in written expression questions on the TOEFL test. The irregular
forms that are the most problematic are plural forms that do not end in S.
Different criteria
was* used to evaluate the performers
Nouns
in English can refer to persons or things. Sometimes in written expression questions
on the TOEFL test the person is used in place of the thing, or the thing is
used in place of the person.
Ralph Nader is an authorization*
in the field of consumer affairs.
There are many job
opportunities in accountant*.
Subject
and object pronouns can be confused on the TOEFL test, so you should be able to
recognize these two types of pronouns: SUBJECT:I, you, he, she, it, we, they”; OBJECT:
me, you, him, her, it, us, them. A subject pronoun is used
as the subject of a verb. An object pronoun can be used as the object of a verb
or the object of a preposition.
Possessive
adjectives and pronouns both show who or what “owns” a noun. However, possessive
adjectives and possessive pronouns do not have the same function, and these two
kinds of possessives can be confused on the TOEFL test. A possessive adjective
describes a noun: it must be accompanied by a noun. A possessive pronoun takes
the place of a noun: it cannot be accompanied by a noun.
They lent me their hook (ADJECTIVE)
They lent me theirs.(PRONOUN)
After
you have checked that the subject and object pronouns and the possessives are
used correctly, you should also check each of these pronouns and possessives
for agreement. The following are examples of errors of this type that you might
find on the TOEFL test:
The boys will
cause trouble if you let him*.
Everyone must give
their* name.
Sometimes
in written expression questions on the TOEFL test, adjectives are used in place
of adverbs, or adverbs are used in place of adjectives. Adjectives and adverbs
have very different uses. Adjectives have only one job: they describe nouns or
pronouns.
She is a beautiful woman
the adjective beautiful describes the noun woman.
Generally
an adverb rather than an adjective will come directly after a verb because the
adverb is describing the verb.
She spoke nicely
In this example, the verb spoke is followed by the adverb nicely. This adverb describes
the verb spoke. However, you must be very careful if the verb is a linking verb. A linking verb is followed by an adjective rather than an adverb.
She looks nice.
In this example, the linking verb looks is followed by the adjective nice. This adjective describes the subject she.
Adjectives
and adverbs can appear in incorrect positions in written expression questions
on the TOEFL test. There are two common errors of this type that you should
beware of: (1) the position of adjectives with the nouns they describe, and (2)
the position of adverbs with objects.
Generally
when a word ends in -ly in English, it is an adverb. However, there are
a few words ending in -ly that are adjectives, and these -ly
adjectives can cause confusion in written expression questions on the TOEFL
test.
Certain
adjectives appear only in the predicate of the sentence; that is, they appear
after a linking verb such as be, and they cannot appear directly in
front of the nouns that they describe.
The snake on the
rock was alive.
The alive*
snake was lying on the rock.
Verb forms ending in -ed and -ing can be used as
adjectives. For example, the verbal adjectives cleaned and cleaning
come from the verb to clean
You
can see from the chart that if a noun is either countable plural or
uncountable, it is possible to have either the definite article the or
no article (indefinite). With all countable singular nouns, however, you
must have an article (unless you have another determiner such as my or each).
The
basic difference between a and an is that a is used in
front of consonants and an is used in front of vowels (a, e, i, o, u):
a took an orange
a man an illness
a page an automobile
The
definite article (the) is used for both singular and plural nouns, so
agreement is not a problem with the definite article. However, because the use
of the indefinite article is different for singular and plural nouns, you must
be careful of agreement between the indefinite article and the noun. One very
common agreement error is to use the singular indefinite article (a or an)
with a plural noun.
With
countable singular nouns it is possible to use either the definite or the
indefinite article, but they have different meanings. The definite article is
used to refer to one specific noun.
Tom will bring the
book tomorrow.
(There is one
specific book that Tom will bring tomorrow.)
He will arrive on the
first Tuesday in July.
(There is only one
first Tuesday in July.)
He sailed on the
Pacific Ocean.
(There is only one
Pacific Ocean.)
Sometimes
an incorrect preposition is given in a sentence in written expression questions
on the TOEFL test.
The game was
called on* because of rain.
I knew I could
count in* you to do a good job.
Sometimes
a necessary preposition has been omitted from a sentence in written expression
questions on the TOEFL test.
Can you waif*
me after the game?
I plan*
attending the meeting.
She likes to make
her own clothes.
Would you like to make
a cake for dessert?
Do often has the
idea of completing or performing. The following expressions show
some of the possible uses of do:
This morning she did
all the dishes.
The students are
doing the assignments
Skill 59:
DISTINGUISH LIKE, ALIKE, AND UNLIKE
Like,
alike,
and unlike are easily confused because they look so similar and they
have many different uses. There are several structures with like, alike,
and unlike that you should be familiar with. The first structures you
should already be familiar with are the adjectives alike and like (see
Skill 50). Study the use of alike and like in the following
examples.
John and Tom are alike.
John and Tom
worked in a like manner.
Skill 60:
DISTINGUISH OTHER, ANOTHER, AND OTHERS
Other,
another,
and others are very easy to confuse. To decide how to use each of them
correctly, you must consider three things: (1) if it is singular or plural,
(2) if it is definite (the) or indefinite (a, an), and (3) if it
is an adjective (it appears with a noun) or if it is a pronoun (it appears by
itself).
Reference
Phillips, Deborah. 2001. Longman Complete Course for the TOEF Test: Preparation for the Computer and Paper Tests